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The
elevation of the ice sheet shows the higher dome of the East Antarctic ice sheet
and the narrow connection between it and the West Antarctic ice sheet
A
view from a science flight over Antarctica: what sea ice looks like from 20,000
ft. straight up.
Credit:NASA
Operation Ice bridge
A
heavily crevassed area of Pine Island Glacier. Shows you how very difficult it
would be to travel and work on the surface of this glacier. Data are best
collected from aircraft flying over the glacier or from space.
Credit:NASA
Operation Ice bridge
The
calving front of Pine Island Glacier. This is the end of the glacier where
pieces of ice break apart from the floating glacier and become icebergs.
Credit:NASA
Operation Ice bridge
Forest
and woodland: 0%
Other:
100% (ice 98%, barren rock 2%)
Area:14
million sq km (280,000 sq km ice-free, 13.72 million sq km ice-covered)
Comparing
the sizes of Antarctica and the United States
Antarctica
in 5 minutes Video
Terrain:about
98% thick continental ice sheet and 2% barren rock, with average elevations
between 2,000 and 4,000 meters; mountain ranges up to nearly 5,000 meters;
ice-free coastal areas include parts of southern Victoria Land, Wilkes Land, the
Antarctic Peninsula area, and parts of Ross Island on McMurdo Sound; glaciers
form ice shelves along about half of the coastline, and floating ice shelves
constitute 11% of the area of the continent
Elevation
extremes:lowest point: Bentley Subglacial Trench -2,555 m highest point:
Vinson Massif 4,897 m note: the lowest known land point in Antarctica is hidden
in the Bentley Subglacial Trench; at its surface is the deepest ice yet
discovered and the world's lowest elevation not under seawater
NASA
RADARSTAT Image
Speculation over the existence of a
"southern land" was not confirmed until the early 1820s when British
and American commercial operators and British and Russian national expeditions
began exploring the Antarctic Peninsula region and other areas south of the
Antarctic Circle. Not until 1840 was it established that Antarctica was indeed a
continent and not just a group of islands. Several exploration
"firsts" were achieved in the early 20th century. Following World War
II, there was an upsurge in scientific research on the continent. A number of
countries have set up year-round research stations on Antarctica. Seven have
made territorial claims, but not all countries recognize these claims. In order
to form a legal framework for the activities of nations on the continent, an
Antarctic Treaty was negotiated that neither denies nor gives recognition to
existing territorial claims; signed in 1959, it entered into force in 1961.
Antarctica has some seven million
cubic miles of ice, representing some 90 percent of the world's total.
The ice averages one and a half miles in thickness (7,100 feet-2,164 meters),
with the thickest ice being almost three miles thick (15,7000 feet-4,785
meters).
Antarctica is as large as the United States and Mexico combined. If the
West Antarctic ice sheet were to melt, global seas would rise by 15 to 20 feet.
If the East sheet were to melt as well, seas would rise by as much as 200 feet,
swamping many oceanic islands and redrawing the world's coastlines. Antarctica's
ice is so heavy that it compresses the land surface over much of the continent
to below sea level.
Antarctica is the highest, driest, coldest, and windiest
continent despite containing 70 percent of the world's freshwater, much of
Antarctica is a desert, with the annual snow accumulation over much of East
Antarctica being the equivalent of less than two
inches of rainfall.
AVHRR,
NDVI, Seawifs, MODIS, NCEP, DMSP and Sky2000 star catalog; AVHRR and Seawifs
texture: Reto Stockli; Visualization: Marit Jentoft-Nilsen NASA Visible Earth
Only
two native vascular plants, the Antarctic hair grass Deschampsia antarctica and
a cushion-forming pearlwort, Colobanthus quitensis, survive south of 56°S. They
occur in small clumps near the shore of the west coast of Antarctic Peninsula.
Also about 150 lichens, 30 mosses, some fungi and one liverwort can be found.
More than 300 species of non-marine algae have been found in Antarctica.
Antarctica
Facts
Antarctica truly is the
“last place on earth.” It wasn’t discovered until 1820 and explorers
didn’t reach the South Pole until 1911.
Antarctica is the coldest
continent; temperatures in the winter can drop below minus 100°F (minus 73°C).
The lowest temperature ever recorded on earth came from Russia’s Vostok
Station: minus 128.6°F (minus 89.2°C) on July 21,1983.
Antarctica is also the driest
continent, in fact it is almost entirely desert. Very little snow falls on
the interior of the continent. However, because it is so cold, whatever snow
does fall doesn’t melt. Over time this little amount of snow (just a few
inches per year) has slowly accumulated into a massive ice cap.
About 99% of Antarctica is
covered by snow and ice. The ice thickness reaches 4 km (2.4 miles) in some
places. This ice flows off of the continent creating numerous floating ice
shelves where the flowing ice meets the ocean. These ice shelves in turn
give rise to many icebergs.
The Antarctic ice cap contains
about 70% of the planet’s fresh water and about 90% of its ice.
Penguins
in front of Mount Erebus, Paul Rodgers New Zealand Defence Force
The southernmost active
volcano in the word, Mt. Erebus, forms an island at the edge of the Ross Ice
Shelf. This mountain rises more than 3,700 meters (12,100 feet) above the
surrounding Ross Sea and McMurdo Sound area. Two Antarctic research
stations, Scott Base (N.Z.) and McMurdo Station (U.S.) are located on the
southern tip of this volcanic island.
Almost all of Antarctica lies
within the Antarctic Circle (66°33’ South Latitude). All points south of
this imaginary line experience at least one day of 24-hour daylight during
summer and one day of 24-hour darkness in the winter. Further south the
periods of complete daylight and complete darkness last much longer (up to
about 4 months each per year)
There are no countries in
Antarctica, the continent is governed by an international treaty
Antarctica has no true
permanent residents. Fewer than 1,000 people winter over in a given year;
the summer population is substantially higher as scientists and support
staff from over 27 countries converge on the continent.
The
Antarctic Treaty System
The Antarctic Treaty System is
the whole complex of arrangements made for the purpose of regulating relations
among states in the Antarctic. At its heart is the Antarctic Treaty itself. The
original Parties to the Treaty were the 12 nations active in the Antarctic
during the International Geophysical Year of 1957-58. The Treaty was signed in
Washington on 1 December 1959 and entered into force on 23 June 1961. The
Consultative Parties comprise the original Parties and a further fourteen States
that have become Consultative Parties by acceding to the Treaty and
demonstrating their interest in Antarctica by carrying out substantial
scientific activity there.
The primary purpose of the
Antarctic Treaty is to ensure "in the interests of all mankind that
Antarctica shall continue forever to be used exclusively for peaceful purposes
and shall not become the scene or object of international discord." To this
end it prohibits military activity, except in support of science; prohibits
nuclear explosions and the disposal of nuclear waste; promotes scientific
research and the exchange of data; and holds all territorial claims in abeyance.
The Treaty applies to the area south of 60° South Latitude, including all ice
shelves and islands.
The Treaty is augmented by
Recommendations adopted at Consultative Meetings, by the Protocol on
Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty (Madrid, 1991), and by two
separate conventions dealing with the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (London
1972), and the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (Canberra
1980). The Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities
(Wellington 1988), negotiated between 1982 and 1988, will not enter into force.
Speculation
over the existence of a "southern land" was not confirmed
until the early 1820s when British and American commercial operators
and British and Russian national expeditions began exploring the
Antarctic Peninsula region and other areas south of the Antarctic
Circle. Not until 1840 was it established that Antarctica was indeed
a continent and not just a group of islands. Several exploration
"firsts" were achieved in the early 20th century.
Following World War II, there was an upsurge in scientific research
on the continent. A number of countries have set up a range of
year-round and seasonal stations, camps, and refuges to support
scientific research in Antarctica. Seven have made territorial
claims, but not all countries recognize these claims. In order to
form a legal framework for the activities of nations on the
continent, an Antarctic Treaty was negotiated that neither denies
nor gives recognition to existing territorial claims; signed in
1959, it entered into force in 1961.
Geography
Antarctica
Location:
continent
mostly south of the Antarctic Circle
Geographic
coordinates:
90
00 S, 0 00 E
Map references:
Antarctic
Region
Area:
total:
14 million sq km land: 14 million sq km (280,000 sq km ice-free, 13.72 million
sq km ice-covered) (est.) note: fifth-largest continent, following Asia, Africa, North
America, and South America, but larger than Australia and the
subcontinent of Europe
Area - comparative:
slightly
less than 1.5 times the size of the US
Land boundaries:
0
km note: see entry on Disputes - international
Coastline:
17,968
km
Maritime claims:
Australia,
Chile, and Argentina claim Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) rights or
similar over 200 nm extensions seaward from their continental
claims, but like the claims themselves, these zones are not accepted
by other countries; 21 of 28 Antarctic consultative nations have
made no claims to Antarctic territory (although Russia and the US
have reserved the right to do so) and do not recognize the claims of
the other nations; also see the Disputes - international entry
Climate:
severe
low temperatures vary with latitude, elevation, and distance from
the ocean; East Antarctica is colder than West Antarctica because of
its higher elevation; Antarctic Peninsula has the most moderate
climate; higher temperatures occur in January along the coast and
average slightly below freezing
Terrain:
about
98% thick continental ice sheet and 2% barren rock, with average
elevations between 2,000 and 4,000 meters; mountain ranges up to
nearly 5,000 meters; ice-free coastal areas include parts of
southern Victoria Land, Wilkes Land, the Antarctic Peninsula area,
and parts of Ross Island on McMurdo Sound; glaciers form ice shelves
along about half of the coastline, and floating ice shelves
constitute 11% of the area of the continent
Elevation extremes:
lowest
point: Bentley Subglacial Trench -2,540 m highest point: Vinson Massif 4,897 m note: the lowest known land point in Antarctica is hidden in
the Bentley Subglacial Trench; at its surface is the deepest ice yet
discovered and the world's lowest elevation not under seawater
Natural resources:
iron
ore, chromium, copper, gold, nickel, platinum and other minerals,
and coal and hydrocarbons have been found in small uncommercial
quantities; none presently exploited; krill, finfish, and crab have
been taken by commercial fisheries
katabatic
(gravity-driven) winds blow coastward from the high interior;
frequent blizzards form near the foot of the plateau; cyclonic
storms form over the ocean and move clockwise along the coast;
volcanism on Deception Island and isolated areas of West Antarctica;
other seismic activity rare and weak; large icebergs may calve from
ice shelf
Environment - current
issues:
in
1998, NASA satellite data showed that the Antarctic ozone hole was
the largest on record, covering 27 million square kilometers;
researchers in 1997 found that increased ultraviolet light passing
through the hole damages the DNA of icefish, an Antarctic fish
lacking hemoglobin; ozone depletion earlier was shown to harm
one-celled Antarctic marine plants; in 2002, significant areas of
ice shelves disintegrated in response to regional warming
Geography - note:
the
coldest, windiest, highest (on average), and driest continent;
during summer, more solar radiation reaches the surface at the South
Pole than is received at the Equator in an equivalent period; mostly
uninhabitable
People
Antarctica
Population:
no
indigenous inhabitants, but there are both permanent and summer-only
staffed research stations note: 28 nations, all signatory to the Antarctic Treaty,
operate through their National Antarctic Program a number of
seasonal-only (summer) and year-round research stations on the
continent and its nearby islands south of 60 degrees south latitude
(the region covered by the Antarctic Treaty); the population doing
and supporting science or engaged in the management and protection
of the Antarctic region varies from approximately 4,000 in summer to
1,000 in winter; in addition, approximately 1,000 personnel,
including ship's crew and scientists doing onboard research, are
present in the waters of the treaty region; peak summer
(December-February) population - 4,219 total; Argentina 667,
Australia 200, Brazil 40, Bulgaria 15, Chile 237, China 70, Czech
Republic 20, Ecuador 26, Finland 20, France 100, France and Italy
jointly 45, Germany 90, India 65, Italy 90, Japan 125, South Korea
70, NZ 85, Norway 44, Peru 28, Poland 40, Romania 3, Russia 429,
South Africa 80, Spain 28, Sweden 20, Ukraine 24, UK 205, US 1,293,
Uruguay 60 (2007-2008); winter (June-August) station population -
1,088 total; Argentina 176, Australia 62, Brazil 12, Chile 96, China
29, France 26, France and Italy jointly 13, Germany 9, India 25,
Italy 2, Japan 40, South Korea 18, NZ 10, Norway 7, Poland 12,
Russia 148, South Africa 10, Ukraine 12, UK 37, US 337, Uruguay 9
(2008); research stations operated within the Antarctic Treaty area
(south of 60 degrees south latitude) by National Antarctic Programs:
year-round stations - 38 total; Argentina 6, Australia 3, Brazil 1,
Chile 4, China 2, France 1, France and Italy jointly 1, Germany 1,
India 1, Japan 1, South Korea 1, NZ 1, Norway 1, Poland 1, Russia 5,
South Africa 1, Ukraine 1, UK 2, US 3, Uruguay 1 (2008); a range of
seasonal-only (summer) stations, camps, and refuges - Argentina,
Australia, Bulgaria, Brazil, Chile, China, Czech Republic, Ecuador,
Finland, France, Germany, India, Italy, Japan, South Korea, New
Zealand, Norway, Peru, Poland, Romania, Russia, Spain, Sweden,
Ukraine, UK, US, and Uruguay (2007-2008); in addition, during the
austral summer some nations have numerous occupied locations such as
tent camps, summer-long temporary facilities, and mobile traverses
in support of research (March 2008 est.)
Government
Antarctica
Country name:
conventional
long form: none conventional short form: Antarctica
Government type:
Antarctic
Treaty Summary - the Antarctic Treaty, signed on 1 December 1959 and
entered into force on 23 June 1961, establishes the legal framework
for the management of Antarctica; the 30th Antarctic Treaty
Consultative Meeting was held in Delhi, India in April/May 2007; at
these periodic meetings, decisions are made by consensus (not by
vote) of all consultative member nations; at the end of 2007, there
were 46 treaty member nations: 28 consultative and 18
non-consultative; consultative (decision-making) members include the
seven nations that claim portions of Antarctica as national
territory (some claims overlap) and 21 non-claimant nations; the US
and Russia have reserved the right to make claims; the US does not
recognize the claims of others; Antarctica is administered through
meetings of the consultative member nations; decisions from these
meetings are carried out by these member nations (with respect to
their own nationals and operations) in accordance with their own
national laws; the years in parentheses indicate when a consultative
member-nation acceded to the Treaty and when it was accepted as a
consultative member, while no date indicates the country was an
original 1959 treaty signatory; claimant nations are - Argentina,
Australia, Chile, France, NZ, Norway, and the UK. Nonclaimant
consultative nations are - Belgium, Brazil (1975/1983), Bulgaria
(1978/1998) China (1983/1985), Ecuador (1987/1990), Finland
(1984/1989), Germany (1979/1981), India (1983/1983), Italy
(1981/1987), Japan, South Korea (1986/1989), Netherlands
(1967/1990), Peru (1981/1989), Poland (1961/1977), Russia, South
Africa, Spain (1982/1988), Sweden (1984/1988), Ukraine (1992/2004),
Uruguay (1980/1985), and the US; non-consultative members, with year
of accession in parentheses, are - Austria (1987), Belarus (2006),
Canada (1988), Colombia (1989), Cuba (1984), Czech Republic
(1962/1993), Denmark (1965), Estonia (2001), Greece (1987),
Guatemala (1991), Hungary (1984), North Korea (1987), Papua New
Guinea (1981), Romania (1971), Slovakia (1962/1993), Switzerland
(1990), Turkey (1996), and Venezuela (1999); note - Czechoslovakia
acceded to the Treaty in 1962 and separated into the Czech Republic
and Slovakia in 1993; Article 1 - area to be used for peaceful
purposes only; military activity, such as weapons testing, is
prohibited, but military personnel and equipment may be used for
scientific research or any other peaceful purpose; Article 2 -
freedom of scientific investigation and cooperation shall continue;
Article 3 - free exchange of information and personnel, cooperation
with the UN and other international agencies; Article 4 - does not
recognize, dispute, or establish territorial claims and no new
claims shall be asserted while the treaty is in force; Article 5 -
prohibits nuclear explosions or disposal of radioactive wastes;
Article 6 - includes under the treaty all land and ice shelves south
of 60 degrees 00 minutes south and reserves high seas rights;
Article 7 - treaty-state observers have free access, including
aerial observation, to any area and may inspect all stations,
installations, and equipment; advance notice of all expeditions and
of the introduction of military personnel must be given; Article 8 -
allows for jurisdiction over observers and scientists by their own
states; Article 9 - frequent consultative meetings take place among
member nations; Article 10 - treaty states will discourage
activities by any country in Antarctica that are contrary to the
treaty; Article 11 - disputes to be settled peacefully by the
parties concerned or, ultimately, by the ICJ; Articles 12, 13, 14 -
deal with upholding, interpreting, and amending the treaty among
involved nations; other agreements - some 200 recommendations
adopted at treaty consultative meetings and ratified by governments
include - Agreed Measures for Fauna and Flora (1964) which were
later incorporated into the Environmental Protocol; Convention for
the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (1972); Convention on the
Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (1980); a mineral
resources agreement was signed in 1988 but remains unratified; the
Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty was
signed 4 October 1991 and entered into force 14 January 1998; this
agreement provides for the protection of the Antarctic environment
through six specific annexes: 1) environmental impact assessment, 2)
conservation of Antarctic fauna and flora, 3) waste disposal and
waste management, 4) prevention of marine pollution, 5) area
protection and management and 6) liability arising from
environmental emergencies; it prohibits all activities relating to
mineral resources except scientific research; a permanent Antarctic
Treaty Secretariat was established in 2004 in Buenos Aires,
Argentina
Legal system:
Antarctica
is administered through meetings of the consultative member nations;
decisions from these meetings are carried out by these member
nations (with respect to their own nationals and operations) in
accordance with their own national laws; more generally, access to
the Antarctic Treaty area, that is to all areas between 60 and 90
degrees south latitude, is subject to a number of relevant legal
instruments and authorization procedures adopted by the states party
to the Antarctic Treaty; note - US law, including certain criminal
offenses by or against US nationals, such as murder, may apply
extraterritorially; some US laws directly apply to Antarctica; for
example, the Antarctic Conservation Act, 16 U.S.C. section 2401 et
seq., provides civil and criminal penalties for the following
activities unless authorized by regulation of statute: the taking of
native mammals or birds; the introduction of nonindigenous plants
and animals; entry into specially protected areas; the discharge or
disposal of pollutants; and the importation into the US of certain
items from Antarctica; violation of the Antarctic Conservation Act
carries penalties of up to $10,000 in fines and one year in prison;
the National Science Foundation and Department of Justice share
enforcement responsibilities; Public Law 95-541, the US Antarctic
Conservation Act of 1978, as amended in 1996, requires expeditions
from the US to Antarctica to notify, in advance, the Office of
Oceans, Room 5805, Department of State, Washington, DC 20520, which
reports such plans to other nations as required by the Antarctic
Treaty; for more information, contact Permit Office, Office of Polar
Programs, National Science Foundation, Arlington, Virginia 22230;
telephone: (703) 292-8030, or visit its website at www.nsf.gov
Economy
Antarctica
Economy - overview:
Fishing
off the coast and tourism, both based abroad, account for
Antarctica's limited economic activity. Antarctic fisheries in
2005-06 (1 July-30 June) reported landing 128,081 metric tons
(estimated fishing from the area covered by the Convention on the
Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), which
extends slightly beyond the Antarctic Treaty area). Unregulated
fishing, particularly of Patagonian toothfish (Dissostichus
eleginoides), is a serious problem. The CCAMLR determines the
recommended catch limits for marine species. A total of 36,460
tourists visited the Antarctic Treaty area in the 2006-07 Antarctic
summer, up from the 30,877 visitors the previous year (estimates
provided to the Antarctic Treaty by the International Association of
Antarctica Tour Operators (IAATO); this does not include passengers
on overflights). Nearly all of them were passengers on commercial
(nongovernmental) ships and several yachts that make trips during
the summer. Most tourist trips last approximately two weeks.
Communications
Antarctica
Telephones - main
lines in use:
0;
note - information for US bases only (2001)
Telephone system:
general
assessment: local systems at some research stations domestic: commercial cellular networks operating in a small
number of locations international: country code - none allocated; via satellite
(including mobile Inmarsat and Iridium systems) to and from all
research stations, ships, aircraft, and most field parties (2007)
Radio broadcast
stations:
FM
2, shortwave 1 (information for US bases only); note - many research
stations have a local FM radio station (2007)
Radios:
NA
Television broadcast
stations:
1
(cable system with 6 channels; American Forces Antarctic Network-McMurdo
- information for US bases only) (2002)
Televisions:
several
hundred at McMurdo Station (US) note: information for US bases only (2001)
Internet country code:
.aq
Internet hosts:
7,748
(2008)
Internet Service
Providers (ISPs):
NA
Transportation
Antarctica
Airports:
25
(2008)
Airports - with
unpaved runways:
total:
25 over 3,047 m: 4 2,438 to 3,047 m: 5 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 914 to 1,523 m: 9 under 914 m: 6 (2008)
Heliports:
53 note: all year-round and seasonal stations operated by
National Antarctic Programs stations have some kind of helicopter
landing facilities, prepared (helipads) or unprepared (2007)
Ports and terminals:
there
are no developed ports and harbors in Antarctica; most coastal
stations have offshore anchorages, and supplies are transferred from
ship to shore by small boats, barges, and helicopters; a few
stations have a basic wharf facility; US coastal stations include
McMurdo (77 51 S, 166 40 E), and Palmer (64 43 S, 64 03 W);
government use only except by permit (see Permit Office under
"Legal System"); all ships at port are subject to
inspection in accordance with Article 7, Antarctic Treaty; offshore
anchorage is sparse and intermittent; relevant legal instruments and
authorization procedures adopted by the states parties to the
Antarctic Treaty regulating access to the Antarctic Treaty area, to
all areas between 60 and 90 degrees of latitude south, have to be
complied with (see "Legal System"); The Hydrographic
Committee on Antarctica (HCA), a special hydrographic commission of
International Hydrographic Organization (IHO), is responsible for
hydrographic surveying and nautical charting matters in Antarctic
Treaty area; it coordinates and facilitates provision of accurate
and appropriate charts and other aids to navigation in support of
safety of navigation in region; membership of HCA is open to any IHO
Member State whose government has acceded to the Antarctic Treaty
and which contributes resources and/or data to IHO Chart coverage of
the area; members of HCA are Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Chile,
China, Ecuador, France, Germany, Greece, India, Italy, NZ, Norway,
Russia, South Africa, Spain, UK, and US (2007)
Military
Antarctica
Military - note:
the
Antarctic Treaty prohibits any measures of a military nature, such
as the establishment of military bases and fortifications, the
carrying out of military maneuvers, or the testing of any type of
weapon; it permits the use of military personnel or equipment for
scientific research or for any other peaceful purposes
Transnational
Issues
Antarctica
Disputes -
international:
the
Antarctic Treaty freezes, and most states do not recognize, the land
and maritime territorial claims made by Argentina, Australia, Chile,
France, New Zealand, Norway, and the United Kingdom (some
overlapping) for three-fourths of the continent; the US and Russia
reserve the right to make claims; no claims have been made in the
sector between 90 degrees west and 150 degrees west; the
International Whaling Commission created a sancturary around the
entire continent to deter catches by countries claiming to conduct
scientific whaling; Australia has established a similar preserve in
the waters around its territorial claim
JPL
Video: International Polar Year- March 22, 2007 Glaciers, ice sheets and oceans
at Earth's poles are the subject of the International Polar Year. NASA also
begins work to explore other poles in our solar system.
credit:
USGS, CIA Factbook, NASA, NOAA,Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research
(SCAR), WNET New York,British Antarctic Survey, Mark Terry
Data
compiled from The British Antarctic Study, NASA, Environment Canada,
UNEP, EPA and other sources as stated and credited Researched
by Charles Welch-Updated dailyThis Website is a project of the The
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